Pepper, for example, was hoarded, traded, and even sacrificed like gold ingots. It is estimated that by the late Middle Ages, about 1000 tons of pepper and 1000 tons of other essential spices were imported into Western Europe. The value of these goods equated to the annual grain supply for 1.5 million people.
Harvesting pepper, a French manuscript from the Journey of Marco Polo, early 15th century
Pepper was considered the primary spice, but saffron was valued above all not only for its bright yellow-red color but also for its flavor and properties (according to the theory of humors at that time, yellow meant "hot and dry"). Turmeric was a cheap substitute for saffron and was readily used to enhance the presentation and adhere to Galenic theory of humors. For example, at a feast hosted by Cardinal Riario in June 1473, he offered the daughter of the King of Naples bread colored ("golden") with turmeric.
Among spices that are now uncommon or rarely found is Aframomum, a relative of cardamom, which almost entirely replaced pepper in late medieval northern France. Long pepper, nutmeg, spikenard, galangal, and cubeb pepper were also popular. Unlike today, sugar was regarded as a spice due to its high cost and humoral properties.
Some dishes utilized only one type of spice, but combinations of different spices were more common. Even if one spice dominated a dish, efforts were made to mix it with another for a new flavor, such as parsley with clove or pepper with ginger.
Main herbs such as sage, mustard, and parsley were grown and used in cooking throughout Europe, as were cumin, mint, dill, and fennel. Most of these plants were cultivated in gardens and were a cheap alternative to exotic spices. Mustard was used with meat products and was mentioned by Hildegard of Bingen (1098–1179) as food for "the poor folk." Although local herbs were less prestigious than imported spices, they were still used in haute cuisine, albeit less noticeably than now, or added merely for the composition of the dish. Anise was used in dishes with fish and chicken, and its seeds, coated with sugar, served as a type of candy.
Surviving medieval recipes often call for additions to the dish such as sour, tart liquids. Wine, verjuice (juice from unripe grapes or fruits), vinegar, and juice from various fruits, especially those with a tart taste, are almost a universal and distinctive feature of late medieval cuisine. In combination with sweeteners and spices, they created a unique "spicy, fruity" flavor.
Relatively often, in addition to these ingredients, sweet almonds were used: whole, unpeeled, and peeled, crushed, ground, but mainly they were processed into almond milk. This "non-dairy-milk" product was likely one of the most common ingredients in the aristocracy's cuisine of the late Middle Ages. It combined the aroma of spices and sour liquids with a mild flavor and creamy texture.
Salt was ubiquitous and indispensable in medieval cuisine. Salting and drying were the most common forms of food preservation, and consequently, fish and meat were often salted. Many medieval recipes warned against over-salting; their authors advised soaking certain types of products in water to get rid of excess salt. Salt was present in all complex and expensive dishes. The wealthier the host and the more famous the guest, the higher the quality of the storage vessels and the quality and price of the salt in them. Rich guests sat "above the salt," while others sat "below the salt." Salt cellars were made of tin, precious metals, and other rare materials, often intricately decorated. The rank of a table also depended on how finely ground and white the salt was.